Inside the Secret World of Russia’s Cold War Mapmakers

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Inside the Secret World of Russia’s Cold War Mapmakers

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https://www.wired.com/2015/07/secret-cold-war-maps/

A military helicopter was on the ground when Russell Guy arrived at the helipad near Tallinn, Estonia, with a briefcase filled with $250,000 in cash. The place made him uncomfortable. It didn’t look like a military base, not exactly, but there were men who looked like soldiers standing around. With guns.

The year was 1989. The Soviet Union was falling apart, and some of its military officers were busy selling off the pieces. By the time Guy arrived at the helipad, most of the goods had already been off-loaded from the chopper and spirited away. The crates he’d come for were all that was left. As he pried the lid off one to inspect the goods, he got a powerful whiff of pine. It was a box inside a box, and the space in between was packed with juniper needles. Guy figured the guys who packed it were used to handling cargo that had to get past drug-sniffing dogs, but it wasn’t drugs he was there for.

The Soviet Military secretly mapped the entire world, but few outsiders have seen the maps—until now.

Inside the crates were maps, thousands of them. In the top right corner of each one, printed in red, was the Russian word секрет. Secret.

The maps were part of one of the most ambitious cartographic enterprises ever undertaken. During the Cold War, the Soviet military mapped the entire world, parts of it down to the level of individual buildings. The Soviet maps of US and European cities have details that aren’t on domestic maps made around the same time, things like the precise width of roads, the load-bearing capacity of bridges, and the types of factories. They’re the kinds of things that would come in handy if you’re planning a tank invasion. Or an occupation. Things that would be virtually impossible to find out without eyes on the ground.

Given the technology of the time, the Soviet maps are incredibly accurate. Even today, the US State Department uses them (among other sources) to place international boundary lines on official government maps.

John Davies, a retired British software developer, has been studying the Soviet maps for a decade. Photo by: Nick Ballon for WIRED

Guy’s company, Omnimap, was one of the first to import Soviet military maps to the West. But he wasn’t alone. Like the military officials charged with guarding the maps, map dealers around the world saw an opportunity. Maps that were once so secret that an officer who lost one could be sent to prison (or worse) were bought by the ton and resold for a profit to governments, telecommunications companies, and others.

“I’m guessing we bought a million sheets,” Guy says. “Maybe more.”

University libraries at places like Stanford, Oxford, and the University of Texas in Austin have drawers stuffed with Cold War Soviet maps, acquired from Guy and other dealers, but the maps have languished in obscurity. Very few academics have seen them, let alone studied them. Whatever stories they have to tell are hidden in plain sight.

But one unlikely scholar, a retired British software developer named John Davies, has been working to change that. For the past 10 years he’s been investigating the Soviet maps, especially the ones of British and American cities. He’s had some help, from a military map librarian, a retired surgeon, and a young geographer, all of whom discovered the maps independently. They’ve been trying to piece together how they were made and how, exactly, they were intended to be used. The maps are still a taboo topic in Russia today, so it’s impossible to know for sure, but what they’re finding suggests that the Soviet military maps were far more than an invasion plan. Rather, they were a framework for organizing much of what the Soviets knew about the world, almost like a mashup of Google Maps and Wikipedia, built from paper.

A 1980 Soviet map of San Francisco, California. Kent Lee/East View Geospatial

Davies has probably spent more time studying the Soviet maps than anyone else. An energetic widower in his early 70s, he has hundreds of paper maps and thousands of digital copies at his house in northeast London, and he maintains a comprehensive website about them.

“I was one of those kids who at 4 is drawing maps of the house and garden,” he told me when we spoke for the first time, last year. “Anywhere I go I just hoover up all the maps I can find.”

It was on a consulting trip to Latvia in the early 2000s that he stumbled on a trove of Soviet maps in a shop near the center of the capital city, Riga. Davies struck up a friendship with one of the owners, a tall, athletic man named Aivars Beldavs, and bought an armload of Soviet maps from him every time he was in town.

Back home he’d compare the Soviet maps to the maps made around the same time by the Ordnance Survey, the national mapping agency, and other British government sources. He soon spotted some intriguing discrepancies.

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In Chatham, a river town in the far southeast, a Soviet map from 1984 showed the dockyards where the Royal Navy built submarines during the Cold War—a region occupied by blank space on contemporary British maps. The Soviet map of Chatham also includes the dimensions, carrying capacity, clearance, and even the construction materials of bridges over the River Medway. In Cambridge, Soviet maps from the ’80s include a scientific research center that didn’t appear on Ordnance Survey maps till years later. Davies started compiling lists of these differences, and on his trips to Latvia, he started asking Beldavs more questions.

Beldavs, it turns out, had served in the Soviet Army in the mid-’80s, and he used the secret military maps in training exercises in East Germany. A signature was required before a map could be checked out for an exercise, and the army made sure every last one got returned. “Even if it gets destroyed, you need to bring back the pieces,” Beldavs says.

A few years after he got out of the army, Beldavs helped start the map shop, Jana Seta, which sold maps mainly to tourists and hikers. As he tells it, officers at the military cartographic factories in Latvia were instructed to destroy or recycle all the maps as the Soviet Union dissolved in the early ’90s. “But some clever officers found our company,” he says. An offer was made, a deal was struck, and Beldavs estimates the shop acquired enough maps to fill 13 rail cars. At first they didn’t have enough space to store them all. One time, some local kids tried to set fire to a pallet load of maps they’d left outside. But the vast majority of them survived unscathed.
Soviet maps stacked up in Aivars Beldavs’ map shop in Latvia.
Soviet maps stacked up in Aivars Beldavs’ map shop in Latvia. Aivars Beldavs/Jana Seta map shop

“These maps were very interesting for the local people,” Beldavs says. “We suddenly had very detailed maps like nothing we had before.”

Indeed, not all maps were created equal in the USSR. While the military maps were extremely accurate, the maps available to ordinary citizens were next to useless. In a remarkable 2002 paper in a cartographic journal, the eminent Russian cartographer and historian of science, Alexey Postnikov, explains why this was so. “Large-scale maps for ordinary consumers had to be compiled using the 1:2,500,000 map of the Soviet Union, with the relevant parts enlarged to the needed scale,” he wrote. That’s like taking a road map of Texas and using a photocopier to enlarge the region around Dallas. You can blow it up all you want, but the street-level details you need to find your way around the city will never be there.

Worse, the maps for the masses were deliberately distorted with a special projection that introduced random variations. “The main goal was to crush the contents of maps so it would be impossible to recreate the real geography of a place from the map,” Postnikov tells me. Well-known landmarks like rivers and towns were depicted, but the coordinates, directions, and distances were all off, making them useless for navigation or military planning, should they fall into enemy hands. The cartographer who devised this devious scheme was awarded the State Prize by Stalin.

While the newly available Soviet military maps had practical value for people inside the former republics, for Davies they brought back a bit of Cold War chill. Anyone old enough to have lived through those paranoid days of mutually assured destruction will find it a bit disturbing to see familiar hometown streets and landmarks labeled in Cyrillic script. The maps are a rare glimpse into the military machine on the other side of the Iron Curtain.

The Soviet maps were just a casual hobby for Davies until he met David Watt, a map librarian for the British Ministry of Defence, in 2004. Watt, it turns out, had encountered Beldavs years earlier and done some investigations of his own. At a cartography conference in Cologne, Germany, in 1993, Watt had picked up a pamphlet from Beldavs’ shop advertising Soviet military topographic maps and city plans. He was stunned.

“If they really were Soviet military city plans, then these were items which four years before were so highly classified that even squaddies in the Red Army were not allowed to see them,” he later recalled. Watt placed an order.

Maps included details of a Royal Navy submarine-building shipyard and the carrying capacity of bridges.

A few weeks later a package was waiting for him at the airport. Inside were the maps he’d ordered—and a bunch more Beldavs had thrown in. Over the next few years, Watt pored over these maps and picked up others from various dealers. The scope of the Soviet military’s cartographic mission began to dawn on him.

They had mapped nearly the entire world at three scales. The most detailed of these three sets of maps, at a scale of 1:200,000, consisted of regional maps. A single sheet might cover the New York metropolitan area, for example.

But they didn’t stop there. The Soviets made far more detailed maps of some parts of the world. They mapped all of Europe, nearly all of Asia, as well as large parts of North America and northern Africa at 1:100,000 and 1:50,000 scales, which show even more features and fine-grained topography. Another series of still more zoomed-in maps, at 1:25,000 scale, covers all of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, as well as hundreds or perhaps thousands of foreign cities. At this scale, city streets and individual buildings are visible.

And even that wasn’t the end of it. The Soviets produced hundreds of remarkably detailed 1:10,000 maps of foreign cities, mostly in Europe, and they may have mapped the entire USSR at this scale, which Watt estimated would take 440,000 sheets.

All in all, Watt estimated that the Soviet military produced more than 1.1 million different maps.
A 1980 Soviet map of San Diego naval facilities (left) compared with a US Geological Survey map of the same area, from 1978 (revised from 1967).
A 1980 Soviet map of San Diego naval facilities (left) compared with a US Geological Survey map of the same area, from 1978 (revised from 1967). Kent Lee/East View Geospatial; USGS

In 2004 he presented some of his research at a meeting of the Charles Close Society, a group devoted to the study of Ordnance Survey maps. Davies was in the audience. The two men spoke, and Watt encouraged Davies to study them more seriously.

Around the same time, Watt and Davies met two other men who’d also become intrigued by the Soviet maps: John Cruickshank, a retired surgeon from Leeds, and Alex Kent, a geography graduate student at Canterbury Christ Church University. “It really all snowballed from there,” Watt says. “The four of us got together as a kind of private study group.”

For Davies, the new friends and their shared interest came as a welcome distraction in an emotionally difficult time: His wife of nearly four decades was dying of cancer. In 2006, Davies organized a research trip to Latvia. The group spent several days in Riga, poring over Soviet military maps at Beldavs’ shop and visiting a cartographic factory that had made civilian maps during the Soviet era. Not that the trip was all work—it coincided with the Latvian midsummer festival, an all-night affair involving folk songs and dancing, fueled by copious helpings of beer and wild boar sausage. “It was an absolute hoot,” Watt recalls.

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It’s easy now, in an age when anybody can whip out a smartphone and call up a street map or high-res satellite image of any point on Earth with a few taps, to forget how hard it once was to come by geospatial knowledge.

In post-war Russia, men died in the pursuit of better maps. After World War II, Stalin ordered a complete survey of the Soviet Union. Though aerial photography had reduced the need for fieldwork by then, it didn’t eliminate it entirely, according to the 2002 paper by Alexey Postnikov, the Russian cartographer. Survey teams endured brutal conditions as they traversed Siberian wilderness and rugged mountains to establish networks of control points.

The program involved tens of thousands of surveyors and topographers, and hundreds of cartographers.

A surveyor himself, Postnikov writes that on a survey expedition to remote southern Yakutiya in the 1960s he found a grim note scrawled on a tree trunk by one of his predecessors. It’s dated November 20, 1948. “All my reindeer have perished,” it begins. “The food stores became bears’ prey. I am left with a very sick junior surveyor on my hands. I have no transportation or means of subsistence.” The stranded surveyor says he will attempt to force his way to the River Gynym, a sparsely populated area at least 200 kilometers away. Given that temperatures in Yakutiya rarely rise above –4 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter, Postnikov doubts they made it.

It was after the death of Stalin in 1953 that the Soviet military, which had to that point focused its cartographic efforts on Soviet territory and nearby regions like the Balkans and Eastern Europe, started to take on global ambitions.

Stalin’s successor, Nikita Khrushchev, saw fertile ground for the spread of communism in a world in which former European colonies were quickly gaining their independence, says Nick Baron, a historian at the University of Nottingham. “Khrushchev was exhilarated by the prospect of winning over these newly liberated countries in Africa, South Asia, and so on,” Baron says. “It was around that time that the military first began to undertake foreign mapping, including sending their own cartographers abroad to conduct their own surveys in many of these developing countries.”
A detail of a 1975 map showing the Pentagon.
A detail of a 1975 map showing the Pentagon. Kent Lee/East View Geospatial

Postnikov estimates that the military mapping program involved tens of thousands of surveyors and topographers, the people who go out into the field and gather data on relief and other features, and hundreds of cartographers who compiled these data to make the maps. During the Cold War he served in a parallel civilian cartographic corps that made maps for engineers and planners. These maps were far better than the bogus ones produced for the proletariat, accurate enough to be used for building roads and other infrastructure, but stripped of any strategic details that could aid the enemy if they were captured. The civilian cartographers were well aware that the military was busily mapping foreign territories, Postnikov says. “We knew each other personally, and we knew about their main task.”

How many maps did the military cartographers make? “Millions and millions,” is what Postnikov says when I ask, but he quickly adds: “It’s absolutely impossible to say, for me, at least.”

For San Diego, the Russians included sites of military interest, but also notes on transit, communications, and the height of buildings.

The US military made maps during the Cold War too, of course, but the two superpowers had different mapping strategies that reflected their different military strengths, says Geoff Forbes, who served in the US Army as a Russian voice interceptor during the Cold War and is now director of mapping at Land Info, a Colorado company that stocks Soviet military maps. “The US military’s air superiority made mapping at medium scales adequate for most areas of the globe,” Forbes says. As a result, he says, the US military rarely made maps more detailed than 1:250,000, and generally only did so for areas of special strategic interest. “The Soviets, on the other hand, were the global leaders in tank technology,” Forbes says. After suffering horrific losses during the Nazi ground invasion in WWII, the Soviets had built up the world’s most powerful army. Maneuvering that army required large-scale maps, and lots of them, to cover smaller areas in more detail. “One to 50,000 scale is globally considered among the military to be the tactical scale for ground forces,” Forbes says. “These maps were created so that if and when the Soviet military was on the ground in any given place, they would have the info they needed to get from point A to point B.”

A manual produced by the Russian Army, translated and published in 2005 by East View, a Minnesota company with a large inventory of Soviet maps, gives some insight into how the topographic maps could be used in planning or executing combat operations. It includes tables on the range of audibility of various sounds (a snapping twig can be heard up to 80 meters away; troop movements on foot, up to 300 meters on a dirt road or 600 meters on a highway; an idling tank, up to 1,000 meters; a rifle shot, up to 4,000 meters).
A tourist map (left) of Tallinn produced for the 1980 Olympics is short on detail and accuracy compared to a Soviet military map of the same area made in 1976.
A tourist map (left) of Tallinn produced for the 1980 Olympics is short on detail and accuracy compared to a Soviet military map of the same area made in 1976. Greg Miller; Aivars Beldavs/Jana Seta map shop

Other tables give the distances for visual objects (a lit cigarette can be visible up to 8,000 meters away at night, but you’d have to get within 100 meters to make out details of a soldier’s weaponry in daylight). Still more tables estimate the speed at which troops can move depending on the slope of the terrain, the width and condition of the roadway, and whether they are on foot, in trucks, or in tanks.

The maps themselves include copious text with detailed descriptions of the area they depict, everything from the materials and conditions of the roads to the diameter and spacing of the trees in a forest to the typical weather at different times of year. The map for Altan Emel, a remote region of China near the border of Mongolia and Russia, includes these details, according to a translation on Omnimap’s website:

The lakes are usually not large; 0.5-2 km2 (maximum up to 7 km2), with the depth up to 1 meter. The banks are low, gentle, and partially swamped. The bottom is slimy and vicious [sic]. Some of lakes have salted or alkaline water.

It goes on (and on) from there.

The description of San Diego, translated and published in English here for the first time, points out objects of obvious strategic interest—including a submarine base, a naval airbase, ammunition depots, factories that make aircraft and weapons—but also includes notes on public transportation, communications systems, and the height and architecture of buildings in various parts of town.

To make these maps of foreign territory, the Soviets started with official, publicly available maps from sources like the Ordnance Survey or the US Geological Survey. John Davies has found, for example, that elevation markers on maps of Britain often appear at exactly the same points and work out to be exact metric equivalents of the British units. (Because of such similarities, the Ordnance Survey has long maintained that the Soviet maps violate their copyright.)

The Soviets appear to have done the same thing with maps made by the US Geological Survey, but those maps are in the public domain, and anyone—including someone from the Soviet embassy—could have bought them easily.

“When I joined the USGS in 1976, I heard the then commonly-told story about a representative from the Soviet embassy in Washington obtaining the initial copy of the paper-print National Atlas, prepared by the USGS in cooperation with a number of other agencies, when it was offered for public sale in 1970,” USGS geologist and historian Clifford Nelson told me in an email. Nelson added that it seems logical that Soviet representatives would have acquired 1:24,000-scale topographic maps from the US as they were printed, but he says he knows of no paper trail that could confirm that.

Despite the Ordnance Survey’s copyright claim, Davies argues that the Soviet maps aren’t mere copies. In many places, they show new construction—roads, bridges, housing developments, and other features that don’t appear on contemporary Ordnance Survey maps. Many of these details, Davies argues, came from aerial or satellite reconnaissance (the first Soviet spy satellite, Zenit, was launched into orbit in 1962). Other details, such as notes on the construction materials and conditions of roadways and bridges, seemingly had to come from agents on the ground (or, according to one account from a Swedish counterintelligence officer, by picnicking Soviet diplomats with a preference for sites near objects of strategic interest).
Unlike the 1984 US Geological Survey map of Chicago’s lakefront, the 1982 Soviet map shows individual buildings in the city and structures on Navy Pier.
Unlike the 1984 US Geological Survey map of Chicago’s lakefront, the 1982 Soviet map shows individual buildings in the city and structures on Navy Pier. Kent Lee/East View Geospatial; USGS

Not that the Soviet maps are infallible. There are curious mistakes here and there: Earthworks for a new pipeline in Teesside in the UK are mistaken for a road under construction, a nonexistent subway line connects the Angel and Barbican stations in London. The town of Alexandria appears (correctly) in northern Virginia, but a town of the same name also appears (incorrectly) outside of Baltimore. Defunct railways and ferry routes persist on editions of the Soviet maps for years after they’ve been discontinued.

There are other puzzles too. The Soviets mapped a handful of American cities at a scale of 1:10,000. These are detailed street-level maps, but they don’t focus on places of obvious strategic importance. The list of known maps at this scale includes:

Pontiac, MI

Galveston, TX

Bristol, PA

Scranton, PA

Syracuse, NY

Tonawanda, and North Tonawanda, NY

Watertown, NY

Niagara Falls, NY

Economic rather than military objectives may have motivated the Soviets to map these cities in detail, suggests Steven Seegel, an expert on Russian political and intellectual history at the University of Northern Colorado. The Soviets admired US postwar economic prosperity and wanted to understand how it worked, Seegel says.

“These cities might have been on their radar for their reputation for heavy industry, shipping, or logistics,” Seegel says. Pontiac had a General Motors plant, for instance, and Galveston was a major port. Scranton had a huge coal mine. Other towns were close to hydropower plants. “There was an obsession in the Soviet era over power grids and infrastructure” that went beyond their military implications, Seegel says.

John Davies has found scores of features on the Soviet maps that don’t seem to have immediate military relevance, things like factories, police stations, and transportation hubs. “If it’s an invasion map, you wouldn’t show the bus stations,” Davies says. “It’s a map for when you’re in charge.”

That’s probably true, but there may be even more to it than that, says Alex Kent, who’s now a senior lecturer in geography at Canterbury Christ Church University. Kent thinks the Soviets used the maps more broadly. “It’s almost like a repository of intelligence, a database where you can put everything you know about a place in the days before computers,” he says.
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“They managed to turn so much information into something that’s so clear and well-presented,” Kent says. “There are layers of visual hierarchy. What is important stands out. What isn’t recedes. There’s a lot that modern cartographers could learn from the way these maps were made.”

Aesthetically, the maps are striking, if not beautiful. The cartographers who made them took tremendous pride in their work, down to the last details, says Kent Lee, the CEO of EastView Geospatial, a Minnesota company that was once Russell Guy’s main competition in the Soviet map import business and now claims to have the largest collection of Soviet military maps outside of Russia. “Cartographic culture is to Russia as wine culture is to France,” Lee says.

A close-up of part of the Soviet map of New York City from 1982, with Lower Manhattan in the upper right corner. The details include dimensions and building materials of the bridges. Kent Lee/East View Geospatial

Russell Guy doesn’t sell many Soviet maps these days. But for a while there in the ’90s, he says, business was booming. Telecommunications companies bought them up as they were building cell phone networks across Africa or Asia. If you’re building cell phone towers, Guy explains, you need to know the terrain, and the Soviet topographic maps were often the best source available in less developed parts of the world. He says he could tell which countries were soliciting bids at any given time because as soon as one company ordered a set of Soviet topo maps, three or four others would call up to order the same thing.

Telecom companies used to buy Soviet maps when they were building cell networks in Asia and Africa.

The US government was another big buyer. Intelligence analysts used the Soviet maps in Afghanistan in the early 2000s, says Ray Milefsky, a former geographer and geospatial analyst at the US military’s Defense Mapping Agency (now called the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency). Milefsky later moved to the State Department, where he specialized in determining where international boundaries should be drawn on official government maps. The Soviet maps were—and continue to be—one of the best sources, says Milefsky, who retired in 2013. The boundary lines on the Soviet maps are so accurate because the cartographers went back to the original treaties and reconciled the landmarks mentioned there with survey reports and boundary markers on the ground. “When we first got them it was a gold mine, especially for aligning the boundaries of the former Soviet republics,” Milefsky says.

But with the proliferation of satellite mapping in recent years, the Soviet maps aren’t selling like they used to, Guy and other dealers say. Once in a while a telecom or avionics company will order a set. Sometimes an adventure travel company will buy a few. Geologists and other academics sometimes use them. A team of archaeologists recently used the Soviet maps to study the destruction of prehistoric earthen mounds by encroaching agriculture in Central Asia.

Even so, military maps are still a touchy topic in Russia. As recently as 2012, a former military topographic officer was sentenced to 12 years in prison for allegedly leaking classified maps to the West.
Map scholars, from left: Alexander Kent, Martin Davis, John Davies, David Watt, and John Cruickshank.
Map scholars, from left: Alexander Kent, Martin Davis, John Davies, David Watt, and John Cruickshank. NICK BALLON FOR WIRED

John Davies and Alex Kent gave a presentation of their research at an international cartography meeting in Moscow in 2011, hoping to meet Russian cartographers or scholars who knew about the maps or perhaps had even worked on them. They thought maybe someone might come up after their talk or approach them at happy hour. No one did.

“The silence was quite disconcerting,” Kent says. “This was a subject you just don’t talk about.”
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Davies and Kent have written a book about the Soviet military maps, but their publisher, the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford, recently backed out, citing copyright concerns, Davies says.

For Guy, the maps are a reminder of a time when a map dealer from a small company in North Carolina got a tiny taste of the 007 lifestyle. He and other dealers who brought the maps to the West still have vivid memories of clandestine meetings in dark Moscow bars, being trailed by KGB agents (who else could it be?), and worrying about who was listening in on their phone calls. They still dodge questions about their old military connections. They don’t want to stir up trouble. Even now, the paranoia is hard to shake.
lty820

冷戰蘇聯地圖的祕密世界

文章 lty820 »

https://www.luoow.com/dc_tw/108206180

Russel Guy懷抱著裝滿25萬美元的公文包,來到愛沙尼亞的塔林市附近的直升機坪時,一架軍用直升機已經停在那裡了。Guy感覺不太自在,這裡怎麼看也不像軍事基地,但是旁邊站著的一看就是軍人,而且帶著槍。

這是1989年。蘇聯行將崩潰,部分軍官正忙於出賣物資。Guy走近直升機坪的時候,大多數物資已經從直升機上卸下來,瓜分完畢。Guy想要的東西正是剩下的那些大箱子。他開啟一個箱蓋看貨,聞到濃重的松樹味。箱子裡裝的是另一個箱子,箱子之間墊著松針。Guy想,裝貨的人以前一定對付過緝毒犬,不過現在,他要的貨可不是毒品。

蘇聯軍方祕密製作了全世界的地圖,但是迄今為止,只有少數外人見過這些地圖。

這些箱子裡都是地圖,有幾千張之多。每張地圖的右上角都印著紅色的俄文секрет,意為「機密」。

這些地圖出自史上最具野心的製圖工程。在冷戰中,蘇聯軍方繪製了全世界的地圖,其中一些甚至精確到了各棟建築。蘇聯製作的美國和歐洲城市地圖包含了一些同時期民用地圖上沒有的詳細資訊,比如道路的準確寬度,橋樑的設計載荷,工廠的具體型別等。如果要指揮裝甲部隊入侵,或者實行軍事佔領,這類資訊價值非凡。如果沒有人去現場勘測,這些資訊是絕不可能收集到的。

考慮到當時的科技水平,蘇聯的地圖精確得不可思議。甚至在今天,美國國務院還會根據這些地圖(當然還要用其它資料),在官方地圖上標定國境線。

Guy的公司叫Omnimap,是第一批將蘇聯地圖引進西方的機構。不過Guy並不是單幹,負責看護地圖的軍官們也看到了商機,全世界的地圖商人都看到了商機。在以前,這些地圖是嚴格保密的,只要弄丟一張,軍官就會被送進監獄(甚至更嚴重)。但是現在,為了賺錢,它們被成噸成噸地賣給政府、通訊公司、其它人。

「我猜,我們大概已經買了一百萬張,」 Guy說,「沒準還要多。」

斯坦福、牛津、德州大學奧斯汀分校等高校的圖書館,裝蘇聯冷戰地圖的抽屜塞得滿滿的,這些地圖正是從Guy和其他商人手裡買的,卻無人問津。看過它們的只有少數學者,研究就更談不上了。地圖承載的故事,就隱藏在眾目睽睽之下。

不過,退休的英國程式設計師,「非正統」學者John Davies,一直在努力改變這種情況。十年來他始終在研究蘇聯地圖,尤其是美國城市和英國城市的地圖。他還有幾位同伴,有軍用地圖保管員,有退休的外科醫生,還有年輕的地理學家,大家之前各自研究過這些地圖。如今他們嘗試把資訊拼湊起來,搞清楚這些地圖是怎麼製作的,更重要的是這些地圖的真正用途。但是直到今天,這些地圖在俄國仍然是禁忌,所以沒法得到確切答案。不過他們掌握的資訊說明,蘇聯製作地圖的目的絕不僅僅是制定入侵計劃。這些地圖是蘇聯用來認知世界的整套體系的基礎框架,就好比今天的谷歌地圖或是維基百科,只不過,它們是紙質的。

2

Davies花在研究蘇聯地圖上的時間大概是全世界最多的。這位年過七十的鰥夫精神矍鑠,在倫敦東北部的家裡有幾百張紙質地圖,幾千份數字地圖,他同時維護著一個以這些地圖為主題的大而全的網站。

「我四歲的時候,就開始畫房子和花園的地圖。」去年我們初次見面時,他說,「不管我去哪裡,都會四處收集地圖。」

21世紀頭幾年,他以顧問身份去了拉脫維亞,在首都里加市中心的一家商店裡偶遇了蘇聯地圖的寶庫,驚得說不出話來。Davis與一名地圖擁有者成了朋友,這個叫Aivars Beldavs的傢伙又高又壯。之後Davis每次去拉脫維亞,都要從Beldavs那裡弄回一捆蘇聯地圖。

回到家以後,Davies會拿出蘇聯地圖,對比同時期英國國家測繪局(Ordnance Survey)和其他英國政府部門製作的地圖。兩相對比,他已經找出了一些有意思的差別。


英國東南角有個叫查塔姆(Chatham)的河邊小鎮,1984年的蘇聯地圖上標註了皇家海軍在冷戰期間製造潛艇的船塢,這片區域在當時的英國地圖上是空白的。蘇聯製作的查塔姆地圖同時標註了尺寸、載重量、能見度,甚至是梅德韋河上橋樑的建築材料。在劍橋,80年代的蘇聯地圖標出了一座科學研究中心,幾年之後才能在英國國家測繪局的地圖上看到它。Davies歸類整理了這些差異,後來他再去拉脫維亞時,就會有更多問題提給Beldavs。

事實是,Beldavs在20世紀80年代中期曾在蘇軍服役,他在東德受訓時用過這些保密的地圖。如果要取地圖出來訓練,必須先簽字,軍隊會確保地圖最後收回原處。「即便是送去銷燬,也要把紙灰送回來」。Beldavs說。


退役之後幾年,Beldavs參與開了家叫Jana Seta的地圖商店,主要向遊客和探險者出售地圖。他回憶說,90年代初蘇聯解體時,拉脫維亞的軍用地圖製造部門曾接到命令要銷燬所有地圖。「有些軍官腦子活,於是開了這家公司」。有人收,有人供,一拍即合。Beldavs估計,店鋪弄到的地圖大概能裝滿13個車皮。一開始,甚至都找不到足夠的地方來放這些地圖。有一次,當地幾個小孩甚至試圖燒掉一堆放在戶外的地圖。不過,絕大多數地圖還是原封不動儲存了下來。

本地人對這些地圖很感興趣。Beldavs說,之前我們什麼地圖也沒有,現在一下子就有了那麼詳細的地圖。

在蘇聯,並非所有的地圖都是平等的。軍用地圖異常精確,普通人拿到的民用地圖卻粗陋不堪。2002年,著名的蘇聯地圖學家、科學史學家Alexey Postnikov在某份製圖學期刊上發表了一篇重要的論文,對此做了解釋:「普通消費者用的小比例尺地圖是從蘇聯的1:2500萬地圖製作而來,選取需要的部分,直接放大就可以」,他寫道,「這做法就好像從德州公路圖上找一片區域放大,製作成達拉斯地區的地圖。靠這種地圖去轟炸整個城市是沒問題的,但是想靠它在城裡認清街道,找到要去的地方,那可沒門。」

這還不夠,普通民用地圖還專門做了偏移處理,使用的是包含隨機擾動的特殊投影演算法。Postnikov說,「主要的目的是搞亂地圖的內容,就沒法根據地圖重建真實地理資訊」。河流和城鎮之類眾所周知的地標都收錄在地圖上,但是座標、朝向、距離都做了修改,所以萬一地圖落入敵手,既不能用來導航,也不能用來制定計劃。設計這套偏移演算法的製圖人員獲得了斯大林授予的蘇聯國家獎。

對前蘇聯加盟共和國的居民來說,新出現的蘇聯軍用地圖是可以真正拿來用的,但是對Davies來說,它保留著冷戰的緊張氣息。一定年紀的人都經歷過那個「(冷戰雙方)確保互相摧毀」的瘋狂年代,如今發現自己熟悉的家鄉街道和地標被用俄語細緻標出來,那感覺並不舒服。對鐵幕這邊的人來說,蘇聯軍用地圖可以讓人管中窺豹,知道真正的戰爭機器是什麼樣子。

對Davies來說,研究蘇聯地圖一直都是業餘愛好,直到他在2004年遇到了英國國防部的地圖管理員David Watt。事實上,Watt在這之前幾年就認識了Beldavs,而且自己已經做了些調查。1993年,在德國科隆舉行的製圖學會議上,Watt遇到了Beldavs地圖商店的宣傳冊,賣點是蘇聯軍用地圖和城市入侵計劃。他被這些東西驚呆了。

Watt後來回憶說,如果這些真的是蘇軍的城市地圖,那麼4年前的1989年,這些地圖還屬於高度保密,即便是紅軍的二等兵都無權看到。因此,他下了訂單。

這些地圖包含了皇家海軍制造潛艇的船塢的細節,還有橋樑的限重。

過了幾周,一個包裹送到了機場,裡面是他要的地圖,Beldavs還額外贈送了不少。接下來的幾年裡,Watt一直在鑽研這些地圖,同時也從其它商人手裡購買地圖。於是,蘇聯軍用地圖繪製計劃的全貌逐漸在他眼前展開了。

蘇聯人的世界地圖主要有三種比例尺。其中最詳細地圖的比例尺為1:200,000,分地區製作地圖。舉個例子,紐約大都會地區就是用一張地圖來覆蓋的。

但這還不是全部。蘇聯人為世界上的某些區域製作了更詳細的地圖。他們製作的1:100,000和1:50,000的地圖覆蓋了整個歐洲,亞洲的絕大部分,北美和北非的大部分,這些地圖包含了更多的細節特徵和具體地形。還有些地圖的比例尺更大,達到了1:25,000,這些地圖覆蓋了整個前蘇聯地區和東歐,以及其它數百甚至數千的外國城市。這樣的比例尺的地圖上,可以看見城市的街道和單獨的建築。

這仍然不是全部。蘇聯人為外國城市——主要是歐洲城市——製作了比例尺為1:10,000的超詳細地圖,還為蘇聯全國都製作了這種比例尺的地圖。Watt估計這種地圖多達44萬張。

按照Watt的估計,全部加起來,蘇聯軍方總共製作了超過110萬張各種地圖。

英國的查爾斯-克洛斯協會(Charles Close Society)專門研究英國國家測繪局公佈的地圖及其背後的歷史,2004年的一次會議上,Watt釋出了自己的研究成果。而Davies當時正在臺下。他們倆就這麼認識了,Watt鼓勵Davies以更嚴肅的態度繼續研究。

同樣在那段時間,Watt和Davies遇到了另外兩個傢伙,他們也被蘇聯地圖所吸引:利茲地區的退休外科醫生John Cruickshank,坎特伯雷基督教會大學的地理學研究生Alex Kent。「這樣,雪球就滾起來了」, Watt說,「我們四人湊成了私人研究小組」。


Davies那時候情緒低落,因為陪伴他近40年的妻子因癌症逝世了。對他來說,新認識的朋友,共同的興趣,都伴隨著積極情緒,可以排遣哀愁。2006年,Davis組織了一次拉脫維亞研究之旅。大家在首都里加呆了好些天,鑽研Beldavs商店裡的蘇聯軍用地圖,走訪蘇聯時期生產民用地圖的製圖工廠。當然這趟旅程不只有工作,恰逢拉脫維亞的仲夏節日,整夜都有民間歌舞,還有啤酒、野豬肉香腸的美妙陪伴。「那絕對夠熱鬧」,Watts回憶說。


3

如今使用地圖可容易多了,現在每個人在地球上任何地方,掏出智慧手機點上幾下,就能看到街景,或者高精度衛星地圖,完全不需要像以前那樣必須掌握一堆地理知識。

二戰後,蘇聯人為製作更好的地圖付出了人命的代價。二次大戰之後,斯大林下令對蘇聯領土進行全面勘測。根據俄國製圖學家Alexey Postnikov在2002年發表的論文,儘管當時已經有了航空測繪,不必做那麼多實地勘查,但航空測繪還不能完全替代實地勘測。勘查隊為了建立監測點網路,必須面對惡劣的環境,必須穿越西伯利亞的曠野和崎嶇的山脈。

該計劃動用了數萬土地勘測人員和地形測量人員,涉及的製圖人員也數以百計。

同樣身為土地勘測人員的Postnikov寫道,20世紀60年代,在一次深入南方雅庫特的勘測探險中,他在樹幹上發現了以前的同行留下的悽慘筆記。記錄的時間是1948年11月20日,開頭寫著「麋鹿已經死光了」,接下來是「食物貯藏點已經被熊發現。我身邊只剩一名非常虛弱的年輕勘測人員了。沒有交通工具,也沒有生存補給。」 按照身處絕境的勘測員留下的說法,他會努力穿過200公里人煙稀少的地區,抵達格納姆河。考慮到雅庫特地區的氣溫基本不超過攝氏零下20度,Postnikov懷疑,自己看到的就是絕筆。

斯大林在世時,蘇軍的地圖勘測一直集中在蘇聯領土和臨近地區,比如巴爾幹和東歐。斯大林死後,蘇軍更是雄心勃勃地想要勘測全世界。

諾丁漢大學的歷史學家Nick Baron認為,對斯大林的繼任者尼基塔·赫魯曉夫而言,獨立運動迅猛發展的前歐洲殖民地,正是在全球傳播共產主義的肥沃土壤。「赫魯曉夫非常看好在非洲、南亞等地贏得新獨立國家的前景,大概就是在這時候,蘇軍開始製作外國地圖,包括將自己的勘測人員送到廣大發展中國家,完成測繪任務」。

Postnikov估計,軍方的地圖製作計劃動用了數萬名土地勘測人員和地形測量人員,這些人得到資金和裝置的支援,深入實地收集資料,另外還有數百名製圖人員,負責收集整理這些資料,製作地圖。冷戰期間,他供職的民用製圖機構為工程師和規劃者提供地圖。與提供給無產階級的粗製濫造品相比,這些地圖的質量要好得多,它們足夠精確,可以用來規劃道路和其它基礎設施,同時抹掉了所有戰略細節,以防落入敵手之後被敵人利用。民用地圖的製圖人員清楚,軍方正在忙於測繪外國的國土,Postnikov說,「私下裡大家互相認識,我們也大概知道他們的主要任務。」

這些軍方的製圖人員一共製作了多少地圖?我問Postnikov的時候,他回答說「幾百萬張吧」,隨即他補充道,「反正我是說不上來。」

俄國製作的聖地亞哥的地圖上,標明瞭軍用設施,也提供了運輸路線、通訊方式、建築高度等資訊。

當然,美軍在冷戰時期也在製作地圖,但是兩個超級大國的勘測戰略不同,這反映了兩軍的不同優勢,說這話的Geoff Forbes曾在美軍中服役,負責監聽蘇軍的無線電通訊,現在則是Land Info的繪圖主管,這家科羅拉多州的公司也囤積了蘇聯軍用地圖。「美軍掌握空中優勢,所以,對地球上大部分地區來說,製作中比例尺的地圖就足夠了」。他說,因此美軍很少製作比例尺大過1:250,000的地圖,除非是有特殊戰略意義的區域。

「蘇聯不一樣,他們的裝甲洪流是世界第一的」,Forbes說。二戰期間,德軍的地面入侵讓蘇軍損失慘重,所以蘇聯後來擁有世界上最強大的陸軍。陸軍的行動需要大比例尺地圖,而且是很多的大比例尺地圖,才能詳細覆蓋小的區域。各國軍方公認,1:50,000的比例尺適用於地面部隊的戰術行動。Forbes說。有了這些地圖,蘇軍無論在什麼地方,都能找到從一點到另一點需要的資訊。

明尼蘇達州的East View公司收集了大量的蘇聯地圖,2005年,該公司翻譯出版了一本蘇軍的行動手冊,或許可以窺見這些地圖是如何規劃和執行軍事行動的。其中標註了各種聲音可以被聽見的距離:樹枝斷裂的聲音可以傳到80米外,軍隊如果在泥土地上步行,300米外就可以聽見,如果在柏油路上,600米外就可以聽見;怠速的坦克在1000米外就可以發現,槍聲可以傳到4000米外。

塔林的遊客地圖,製作於1980年奧運會期間,與1976年為同樣區域製作的蘇聯軍用地圖相比,細節和精度都有缺失。Photography:GREG MILLER; AIVARS BELDAVS/JANA SETA MAP SHOP

還有表格列明瞭可辨識的距離:點燃的菸頭在夜晚可以從8000米外看到,但是在白天,要走近到100米才能看到士兵攜帶武器的細節。還有表格是關於軍隊行進速度的,根據地形坡度,道路寬度和質地,以及徒步、坐卡車、乘坦克等情況,分類羅列。

這些地圖還包含了大量的文字,細緻描述了地圖所在的區域,從道路的建築材料和通行情況,到樹林中樹木的間隔,再到一年中不同時節的典型天氣,無所不包。阿拉坦額莫勒是中國境內的偏遠地區,靠近蒙古和俄國邊境。根據Omnimap網站上的翻譯,蘇聯製作的該地區地圖包含了以下細節資訊: 湖泊通常不大,面積在0.5到2平方公里(最大7平方公理),最深處為1米。河岸低矮鬆軟,部分是沼澤。水底粘稠危險(原文如此)。有些湖是鹹水或鹼水。

由此可見一斑。

在首次翻譯成英語出版的聖迭戈地圖上,標註了有顯著戰略價值的物件,包括潛艇基地、海軍航空兵基地,彈藥庫,製造飛機和武器的工廠,同時也包含了公共交通、通訊設施,以及城內多個區域的建築高度和結構。

製作這些外國領土的地圖時,蘇聯人的底本是公開發售的地圖,比如英國國家測繪局或者美國地質調查局的地圖。John Davies發現,比如,蘇聯地圖上標註的海拔高度,其位置和數值與英國地圖的標註分毫不差(正因為如此,英國國家測繪局一直聲稱蘇聯地圖侵犯了其版權)。

美國地質調查局的資料似乎也遭到了同樣的待遇,不過這些地圖是公開出版的,所有人——包括蘇聯大使館的人——也能輕易買到。

「1976年我加入美國地質調查局的時候,大家都在說,1970年美國地質調查局和其它幾家機構共同編制的國家地圖集第一次公開發售,在華盛頓的蘇聯大使館的代表就拿到了第一批印刷本」。美國地質調查局的地理學家、歷史學家Clifford Nelson在郵件中告訴我。他補充說,從邏輯分析,美國印製的1:24,000的地形圖,蘇聯人也弄到了,不過他沒有書面證據。

Davies指出,先不考慮英國國家測繪局關於版權的說法,蘇聯地圖絕不是簡單照搬西方地圖。地圖上的許多地方都標註了新建築——道路、橋樑、房屋,以及其它同時代英國國家測繪局的地圖不包含的元素。Davies說,許多細節來自航空或者衛星偵察(蘇聯在1962年發射了第一顆間諜衛星Zenit),其它諸如道路和橋樑的建築材料和狀態之類的細節,似乎是來自實地收集的情報(或者,根據一名瑞典反間諜人員的說法,蘇聯外交官特別喜歡在這些戰略目標附近搞野餐)。

1984年,美國地理調查局地圖上的芝加哥湖畔地圖。與此不同,1982年的蘇聯地圖上標明瞭城裡的各棟建築以及海軍碼頭的結構。Photography:KENT LEE/EAST VIEW GEOSPATIAL; USGS

當然,蘇聯地圖也不是沒有錯誤。各處都可以發現一些有意思的錯誤:英國Teesside地區的新修隧道的土工作業被誤標註成了正在施工的道路,倫敦地鐵的Angel和Barbican兩個站之間憑空多了一條路線。Alexandria鎮出現在了弗吉尼亞州北部(這是對的),但是在巴爾的摩市外又有一個Alexandria鎮(這是錯的)。鐵路線和渡輪航線被廢棄很多年後,仍然存在於蘇聯地圖上。

還有更多的謎題。蘇聯人針對少數美國城市制作的地圖達到了1:10,000的比例。這些地圖細緻到了街道,卻不聚焦在明顯的戰略目標上。已知享受這種待遇的城市有:

密歇根州的龐蒂亞克(Pontiac, MI)

得克薩斯州的加爾維斯頓(Galveston, TX)

賓夕法尼亞州的布裡斯托爾(Bristol, PA)

賓夕法尼亞州的斯克蘭頓(Scranton, PA)

紐約州的雪城(Syracuse, NY)

紐約州的託納萬達和北託納萬達(Tonawanda, and North Tonawanda, NY)

紐約州的水鎮(Watertown, NY)

紐約州的尼亞加拉瀑布(Niagara Falls, NY)

北科羅拉多大學的蘇聯政治和思想史專家Steven Seegel說,蘇聯人之所以要製作這些城市的詳細地圖,關心的大概不是軍事而是經濟。蘇聯眼紅美國在戰後的經濟繁榮,希望瞭解繁榮背後的原理。

「這些城市大概因為重工業、船運、物流的名聲,落入了蘇聯人的視線」,Seegel說。比如龐蒂亞克有通用汽車的工廠,而加爾維斯頓有大港口,斯克蘭頓有巨型煤礦,其它城市靠近水電站。「蘇聯時代,俄國人對電網和基礎設施有種迷戀」,Seegel說,「他們不只關注有軍事價值的目標」。

Davies發現,在蘇聯地圖上還有些資訊和軍事沒有直接關係,比如工廠、警察局、交通樞紐。「如果地圖是為入侵準備的,就不會標註公交站」,Davies說,「除非你打算管理這些地方,才會用到這種地圖。」

這打算可能是真的,但是可能還不完整。說這話的是Alex Kent,他來自坎特伯雷基督教會大學,是地理學的資深講師。Kent認為,對蘇聯人來說,地圖的用途更加廣泛:「他們幾乎把它當成情報倉庫,在沒有電腦的年代,這就是資料庫,你可以把關於某地的所有已知資訊都存進去」。

「他們能夠把這樣多的資訊整理和表達得這樣清晰美觀,」Kent說。「視覺層次異常清晰。重要的部分突出,不重要的淡化。如今的製圖人員仍然可以從這些地圖中學到很多」。

從美學角度考慮,這些地圖即便談不上美,也讓人印象深刻。製圖人員在工作時一定充滿了自豪,即便處理最小的細節也是如此。說這話的是Kent Lee,他是明尼蘇達州EastView GeoSpatial的CEO,這家公司曾經是Russell Guy在蘇聯地圖進口生意上的主要競爭對手。現在,該公司聲稱自己是俄羅斯以外,擁有蘇聯軍用地圖最多的公司。「法國有紅酒文化,俄國有製圖文化」,Lee說。

4

Russel Guy如今賣不出多少蘇聯地圖了。他說,上世紀90年代生意好得不得了。電信公司會買這些地圖,因為它們要在亞洲和非洲建行動電話網路。Guy解釋說,如果你要建行動電話基站,就需要了解地形和地勢,在世界上的不發達地區,蘇聯的地形圖往往是可以找到的質量最高的資訊源。他說他隨時可以數得出來願意出價的國家,因為只要一家公司買了一套蘇聯地圖,就會有其它三四家打電話來照樣購買。

電信公司在亞洲和非洲建設行動電話網路的時候,總是會購買蘇聯地圖。

美國政府是另一個大買家。21世紀開頭那些年,阿富汗的情報分析人員用的就是蘇聯地圖。說這話的是Ray Milefsky,他之前是美國國防部測繪局(現為國家地理空間情報局)的地理學家、地理分析師。之後他調到了國務院,主要工作是在官方的地圖上確定國境線的位置。「蘇聯地圖之前是——現在仍然是——非常棒的資訊來源」,2013年已經退休的Milefsky說。蘇聯地圖上的國境線無比精確,因為勘測人員要找到邊境條約原本,把其中的地標與勘測報告、地面界標逐一對齊。Milefsky回憶道:「最早拿到地圖時,它對我們來說簡直是個金礦,尤其是在對齊前蘇聯加盟共和國邊境時,價值非凡。」

Guy和其它地圖商人說,隨著近些年來衛星地圖的興起,蘇聯地圖的買賣不好做了。電信或者航空公司不時會買上一批,旅行探險公司有時也會購買少量地圖。地理學家和其它學術機構有時候也會使用這些地圖。最近,一隊考古學家也買了蘇聯地圖,用來研究中亞地區農業擴張所毀滅的史前墓葬等遺蹟。

即便如此,軍用地圖在俄國仍然是敏感話題。2012年還有一位前軍方製圖官員被判刑12年,罪名是向西方洩露機密地圖。

2011年,在莫斯科的一次國際製圖學會議上,Davies和Kent做了個關於自己研究的演講,期望能結識俄國的製圖人員,或者是瞭解這些地圖或者之前與製圖人員共事過的學者。他們想,演講結束後大概有人會聯絡他們,或者在休息時過來聊聊。然而,一個人也沒有。

這種沉默讓人很沮喪,Kent說,這個話題誰都不願談論。

Davies和Kent寫了一本關於蘇聯地圖的書,但是Davies說,負責出版的牛津大學Bodleian Library最近反悔了,據說是版權上有顧慮。

對Guy而言,地圖在提醒他們,曾經有一段時間,來自北卡羅來納的小公司的地圖商人,竟然找到幾分詹姆斯·邦德的感覺。在莫斯科的陰暗酒吧裡接頭,被克格勃跟蹤(還能有誰呢),猜測什麼人在竊聽電話,這樣的經歷,Guy和其它把地圖賣到西方的商人仍然記憶猶新。他們拒絕透露以前蘇聯軍隊中的關係戶。誰都不想再惹麻煩。即便到了今天,他們還是那麼謹慎。
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